Notes: LANGUAGE AND REALITY

1.  The essence is that which makes a being what it is and without which it would not be the kind of being it is.

2.  Nature is essence viewed as the source of activity.

3.  The individual is constituted of essence existent in quantified matter plus other accidents.  Essence is that which makes the individual like other members of its class.  Quantified matter is that which makes the individual different from other individuals in its class because matter, extended by reason of its quantity, must be this or that matter, which by limiting the form individuates it.  Accidents are those notes (shapes, color, weight, size, etc.) by which we perceive the difference between the individuals of a class.  The individuals within a species (for example, all human beings) are essentially the same.  But they are not merely accidentally different; they are individually different.  Even if individuals were as alike as the matches in a box of matches or the pins in a paper of pins, they would be nonetheless individually different because the matter in one is not the matter in the other but is a different quantity or part even though of the same kind and amount.

4.  A percept is the sense-apprehension of an individual reality (in its presence).

5.  A phantasm is the mental image of an individual reality (in its absence).

6.  A general concept is the intellectual apprehension of essence.

7.  An empirical concept is the indirect intellectual apprehension of an individual.  The intellect can know individual objects only indirectly in the phantasms because individuals are material, with one exception, the intellect itself;  because it is a spiritual individual, the intellect can know itself directly and reflexively.

Notes: Aristotle's Ten Categories of Being

1.  Substance is that which exists in itself, for example, man.

2.  Quantity is a determination of the matter of substance, giving it parts distinct from parts, for example, tall.

3.  Quality is a determination of the nature or form of a substance, for example: dark, handsome, intelligent, athletic, chivalrous.

4.  Relation is the reference which a substance or accident bears to another, for example:  friend, near.

5.  Action is the exercise of the faculties or power of a substance so as to produce an effect in something else or in itself, for example: clicking a camera, standing up, smiling.

6.  Passion is the reception by a substance of an effect produced by some agent, for example:  being invited to return, being drafted.

7.  When is position in relation to the course of extrinsic events which measure the duration of a substance, for example, Sunday afternoon.

8.  Where is position in relation to bodies which surround a substance and measure and determine its place, for example: on a bench, beside the lake.

9.  Posture is the relative position which the parts of a substance have toward each other, for example:  sitting, leaning forward.

10.  Habiliment consists of clothing, ornaments, or weapons with which human beings by their art complement their nature in order to conserve their own being or that of the community (the other self), for example, in gray tweeds.

The categories can be organized into three subcategories by what they predicate about the subject.

1.  The predicate is the subject itself.  If the predicate is that which is the subject itself and does not exist in the subject, the predicate is a substance. (John is a human being.)

2.  The predicate exists in the subject.  If the predicate exists in the subject absolutely as flowing from matter, the predicate is a quantity. (John is tall.)  If the predicate exists in the subject absolutely as flowing from form, the predicate is a quality. (John is intelligent.)  If the predicate exists in the subject relatively with respect to another, the predicate is in the category relation.  (John is Michael's son.)

3.  The predicate exists in something extrinsic to the subject.  If the predicate exists in something  to the subject and is partially extrinsic as a principle of action in the subject, the predicate is an action.  (John analyzed the data.)  If the predicate exists in something extrinsic to the subject and is a terminus of action in the subject, the predicate is a passion.  (John was injured.)  If the predicate exists in something extrinsic to the subject and is wholly extrinsic as a measure of the subject according to time, the predicate is in the category when.  (John was late.)  If the predicate exists in something extrinsic to the subject and is wholly extrinsic as a measure of the subject according to place, the predicate is in the category where.  (John is here.)  If the predicate exists in something extrinsic to the subject and is wholly extrinsic as a measure of the subject according to the order of parts, the predicate is in the category posture.  (John is standing.)  If the predicate exists in something extrinsic to the subject and is merely adjacent to the subject, the predicate is in the category habiliment.  (John is in formal dress.)

Notes: On Grammar...

Grammar is an experimental knowledge of the usages of languages as generally current among poets and prose writers.  It is divided into six parts:

1.  Trained reading with due regard to prosody [versification]

2.  Exposition, according to poetic figures [rhetoric]

3.  Ready statement of dialectical peculiarities and allusion

4.  Discovery of etymologies

5.  The accurate account of analogies

6.  Criticism of poetical productions which is the noblest part of grammatical art.

The function of language is threefold;  to communicate thought, volition and emotion.

Volition (desires) or appetition (appetites) may be expressed by cries or exclamations, as when a baby cries or a dog barks for food.

Imitation:  an imitation is an artificial likeness, for example, a painting, photograph, cartoon, statue, pantomime, a gesture such as threatening with a clenched fist or rejecting by pushing away with the hands, and picture writing.

Symbol:  a symbol is an arbitrary sensible sign having a meaning imposed on it by convention.

A percept is like a portrait being painted by the artist while she looks at the model.

A phantasm is like that same portrait possessed and looked at whenever one wishes for years afterward although the person painted is absent or even dead.

There are four internal senses:  the imagination, the sensuous memory, the common or central or synthesizing sense, and instinct.

The intellect through abstraction produces the concept.  The imagination is the meeting ground between the senses and the intellect.  From the phantasms in the imagination, the intellect abstracts that which is common and necessary to all the phantasms of similar objects ( for example trees and chairs);  this is the essence (that which makes a tree a tree and that which makes a chair a chair).  The intellectual apprehension of this essence is the general or universal concept (of a tree or a chair).

A general concept is a universal idea existing only in the mind but having its foundation outside the mind in the essence which exists in the individual and makes it the kind of thing it is.  Therefore, a concept is not arbitrary although the word is.  Truth has an objective norm in the real.

Notes: The Seven Liberal Arts

The Trivium:  The three arts of language pertaining to the mind

Grammar             art of inventing and combining words

Logic                      art of thinking

Rhetoric               art of communication

The Quadrivium:  The four arts of quantity pertaining to matter

Discrete quantity of number

Arithmetic           theory of number

Music                    application of theory of number

Continuous quantity

Geometry           theory of space

Astronomy         application of the theory of space

StudyDroid: Mobile Flashcards

I made a delightful and very useful discovery when searching for a practical study aid;   StudyDroid Mobile Flashcards.

Once you download the free app to your phone, you register for a free account on the website;  www.studydroid.com and can then search the thousands of topics in the archives of public flashcard packs, or you may create your own, by typing them out, or inserting images, or what have you.

You then log in to the site via the app, synch your account, and the flashcards are then available on your phone or mobile device so that you may study during the interstices of your busy ( or not so busy.. as the case may be.. ) day.

There are packs available on every conceivable subject.  Naturally, it pays to check the pack before you commit the information to memory.  

I am very pleased with this discovery.   Enjoy!

Language, Grammar & Other Good Things..

When I embarked upon this first subject of The Trivium, I was somewhat at a loss when I attempted to predict what the topic of Grammar might contain that would hold my interest.   I figured it would contain a few terms, a few rules, some punctuation marks.... ....  and that's about the size of it.   As I begin to scratch the surface, I am learning that;  a.  I don't know as much as I thought I knew..  ( no big surprise there, I suppose... ) and b.  One could quite possibly make a lifelong study of this single topic, and never really be finished.

Which, as it happens, offers the very question that I am asking myself at this point;   'How will I know when I have sufficiently mastered the topic of grammar well enough to move on to Logic?'
I don't have an answer.  I shall continue on with my studies....  and hopefully, when I know, I will know...   or I will, with some luck, make a reasonable guess.

What I have so far come to realize is that this entire program of education (incidentally from the Latin educere meaning 'to lead out' i.e., pointing to the central doctrines of the curriculum, and the seven essential subjects) is actually broken into two main groups of subjects...   language, and number.    The 'Trivium of Language' and the 'Quadrivium of Number' would be a far more accurate pair of titles, if more cumbersome.

The first;  of which I am most concerned at the moment, is the 'Trivium of Language' which based upon the cardinal and objective valused of Truth, Beauty and Goodness.

The three topics, learned in their proper order ensure the good structure of the language Grammar, Logic for finding truth, and Rhetoric for the beautiful use of language in expressing truth.

Of the three, my current focus is upon grammar, which gives expression to all states of mind our soul - cognitive, volitive, emotional - in sentences that are statements, questions, wishes, prayers, commands, exclamations. 

In order to bring the underlying stucture of my native language ( American English ) into sharp focus, and to make it become visible to me in my everyday usage of this structure, I have turned to the study of the classical languages in tandem with the more direct study of Grammar, by studying elementary Greek and Latin.

For those of you who are embarking upon a similar study of an additional language ( I speak a few, currently, at varying levels of fluency, but the focus had been to communicate, rather than to use the languages as a vehicle for learning the grammar, syntax and structure of language in general ) I have come across a very useful pamphlet which is available online.  It is entitled 'English Review for Greek' by Mr. James W. Voelz, written in 1998, and can be found at http://elce.csl.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/Voelz-English-Review-for-Greek.pdf .

As a much appreciated added bonus, Sister Miriam Joseph, in her book 'The Trivium' which I am currently using as a textbook, has included a poem by Walter de la Mare entitled 'Silver' for the purpose of illustrating the psychological use of words, ( in this particular case shoon for shoes, and casements for windows to create a psychological effect )

What she has managed to do with the introduction of Mr. de la Mare's poetry ( and others, I am sure ) is to absolutely delight me and lighten my heart...  and so, I will share it here.

Silver

Slowly, silently, now the moon
Walks the night in her silver shoon;


This way, and that, she peers, and sees
Silver fruit upon silver trees;


One by one the casements catch
Her beams beneath the silvery thatch;


Couched in his kennel, like a log,
With paws of silver sleeps the dog;


From their shadowy cote the white breasts peep
Of doves in a silver-feathered sleep;


A harvest mouse goes scampering by,
With silver claws and a silver eye;


And moveless fish in the water gleam,
By silver reeds in a silver stream.


Walter de la Mare